Psychology is a social science. It is different from physics: Whereas inanimate objects do not change much over time, human beings do. Humans involved in sport and exercise also think and manipulate their environment, which makes behavior more difficult (but not impossible) to predict. Coach “Doc” Councilman, legendary Olympic swim coach and key proponent of a scientific approach to coaching, best summed up the need to consider individuality when he indicated that coaches coach by using general principles— the science of coaching. The art of coaching enters as they recognize when and in what situations to individualize these general principles.
This same science-to-practice guiding principle holds true in sport and exercise psychology. Interestingly, some investigators have begun to study contextual intelligence (the ability of individuals to understand and read the contexts in which they work) and its development, which has implications for better understanding how we learn the art of professional practice.
Choosing From Many Sport and Exercise Psychology Orientations
Some coaches believe that teams win games through outstanding defense, other coaches believe that teams win through a wide-open offensive system, and still others believe that wins come through a structured and controlled game plan. Like coaches, sport psychologists differ in how they view successful interventions. Contemporary sport and exercise psychologists and coaches may choose from many orientations to the field, three of the most prevalent being psychophysiological, social–psychological, and cognitive–behavioral approaches.
Psychophysiological Orientation
Sport and exercise psychologists and coaches with a psychophysiological orientation believe that the best way to study behavior during sport and exercise is to examine the physiological processes of the brain and their influences on physical activity. These psychologists typically assess heart rate, brain wave activity, and muscle action potentials, determining relationships between these psychophysiological measures and sport and exercise behavior. For example, in a classic study, biofeedback techniques were used to train elite marksmen to fire between heartbeats to improve accuracy. Several researchers are examining the effects of physical activity, especially aerobic exercise, on brain functioning using electroencephalograms and neuroimaging measures. Results are exciting because they show that physical activity has several positive effects on brain functioning. Additionally, with the advent of mobile technology, an area of sport neuroscience is emerging that examines brain–behavior links such as differences in brain wave activity between expert and novice performers, brain wave patterns associated with athlete pre-shot routines in sports like golf, and effectiveness of neurofeedback on athletic performance.
Social–Psychological Orientation
Using a social–psychological orientation, sport and exercise psychologists assume that behavior is determined by a complex interaction between the environment (especially the social environment) and the personal makeup of the athlete or exerciser. Those taking the social–psychological approach often examines how an individual’s social environment influences her behavior and how the behavior influences the social– psychological environment. For example, sport psychologists with a social– psychological orientation might examine how a leader’s style and strategies foster group cohesion and influence participation in an exercise program.
Cognitive–Behavioral Orientation
Psychologists adopting a cognitive-behavioral orientation emphasizes the athlete’s or exerciser’s cognitions or thoughts and behaviors and believe that thought is central in determining behavior. Cognitive–behavioral sport psychologists might, for instance, develop self-report measures to assess self-confidence, anxiety, goal orientations, imagery, and intrinsic motivation. The psychologists then would see how these assessments are linked to changes in an athlete’s or an exerciser’s behavior. For example, groups of junior tennis players who were either burned out or not burned out were surveyed using a battery of psychological assessments. Burned-out tennis players, compared with non-burned-out players, were found to have less motivation. They also reported being more withdrawn, had more perfectionist personality tendencies, and used different strategies for coping with stress. Thus, links between the athletes’ thoughts and behaviors and the athletes’ burnout status were examined.
Understanding Present and Future Trends
Now that you have learned about the scientific base and professional practice orientations of sport and exercise psychology, you need to understand the significant current and future trends in the area. We briefly discuss these trends.
Counseling and Clinical Training
Today, the education of sport psychology coaches places significant emphasis on counseling and clinical training. People who want to assume a role in sport and exercise consulting will have to understand not only sport and exercise science but also aspects of counseling and clinical psychology. To meet this need, graduate programs have been developed in counseling and clinical psychology, with an emphasis in sport and exercise psychology.
Specialization
Specializations and new subspecialties are developing. Knowledge in sport psychology coaching has exploded. Today’s sport psychologists cannot be experts in every area that you will read about in this text. This has led to the separation of sport psychology as defined here and motor learning or motor control (the acquisition and control of skilled movements as a result of practice) as separate sport science areas. Exercise psychology is the most visible growth area. However, other new specializations that are attracting considerable interest include youth life skills development through sport and the psychology of performance excellence (applying sport psychology performance-enhancement principles to other settings such as music, arts, and business. We expect this trend toward specialization to continue.
Tension Between Academic and Applied Sport Psychology
Tension continues to exist between practitioners of academic and applied sport psychology. This textbook is based on the philosophy that sport psychology will best develop with an equal emphasis on research and professional practice. However, some tension exists between academic (research) and applied sport psychology consultants, each group believing that the other’s activities are less crucial to the development of the field. Although such tension is certainly undesirable, it is not unique. Similar disagreement exists in the broader field of psychology. Sport psychologists must continue working to overcome this destructive thinking.
Qualitative research methods are now accepted. Although a great deal of traditional quantitative research is still being conducted, many investigators have broadened the way they do research by using qualitative (nonnumeric) methods, which entail collecting data via observation or interviews. Instead of analyzing numbers or ratings statistically, researchers analyze the respondents’ words and stories or narration for trends and patterns. This has been a healthy development for the field.
Limited Full-Time Positions for Applied Sport Psychologists
Applied sport psychologists have more work opportunities than ever, but only limited chances at full-time positions. On one hand, they have more opportunities to work with teams and consult with athletes. On the other hand, although increasing, not enough full-time consulting positions exist. Furthermore, a person needs advanced graduate training to become a qualified sport psychology specialist. Hence, people should not expect to quickly obtain full-time consulting positions with high-profile teams and athletes simply since a degree in sport psychology.
By contrast, a Spencer Institute Certified Sports Psychology Coach works in a wide range of settings including a gym, health club, fitness center. They may also work online as a coach or consultant to athletes and fitness enthusiasts all over the world. Still, other coaches work with youth sports teams on youth development program.
Recognition As a Valued Sport Science
Sport and exercise psychology has become a recognized sport science of considerable utility and is receiving increased attention and recognition around the world. Many universities now offer sport and exercise psychology courses, and some graduate programs include five or six courses. Research and professional resources are increasingly available. With this up-to-date information, physical activity professionals will make great strides toward achieving their various goals.
Positive Psychology Movement
Several leaders in the general field of psychology have embraced a positive psychology movement. This movement emphasizes the need for psychologists to focus more on the development of positive attributes such as optimism, hope, and happiness in individuals, as opposed to focusing most of the attention on people’s deficits (e.g., depression). Sport and exercise psychologists have been practicing positive performance for some time, which has opened new opportunities.
Globalization of Sport and Exercise Psychology
The importance of embracing the globalization of sport and exercise psychology is paramount for contemporary students of the field and will increase in years to come. New knowledge and best practices are rapidly being developed in a host of European, Asian, and South American countries. Examining sport psychology across cultures allows us to understand which principles generalize across cultures and which are culturally bound. To understand contemporary sport and exercise psychology, a global perspective is essential and will only grow in importance.
Multidisciplinary Research
Multidisciplinary research is increasing. More sport and exercise psychologists are working with experts from other kinesiology subdisciplines (e.g., exercise physiology and biomechanics) and with individuals from other disciplines (e.g., engineering, social work, and nursing) to study big issues facing society, such as overcoming the obesity epidemic or enhancing positive youth development. Researchers are discovering that real-world problems have multiple causes and that no one field alone can address them.
As technology develops at record pace and changes all aspects of our lives, sport psychologists are learning how to use these technologies to facilitate their efforts. That might involve using virtual reality to train performers, using neuroimaging to unlock the mysteries of the brain and exercise’s influence on it, using computer games to enhance physical activity, or consulting online.
Cultural Diversity
As our world becomes seemingly smaller and more connected, more emphasis in contemporary sport psychology is being placed on studying cultural diversity and examining how groups such as men and women, baby boomers and Generation Z, or those from different ethnic cultures are both similar and unique.
Integrate experiential and scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge must be integrated with the knowledge gained from professional practice. Integrating scientific and professional practice knowledge will greatly benefit you as you work in applied sport and exercise settings.
Compare and contrast orientations to the field. Several approaches can be taken to sport and exercise psychology, including the psychophysiological, social–psychological, and cognitive–behavioral orientations. Psychophysiological sport psychologists study physiological processes of the brain and their influence on physical activity. Social–psychological sport psychologists focus on how complex interactions between the social environment and personal makeup of the athlete or exerciser influence behavior. Cognitive–behavioral sport psychologists examine how an individual’s thoughts determine behavior.
Describe career opportunities and future directions in the field. Although more career opportunities exist today than ever before, only a limited number of full-time consulting positions are available. Sport and exercise psychology coaching is flourishing and has much to offer those interested in working in sport and physical activity settings. Trends point to such future directions as an increased interest in psychological skills training and applied work, more counseling and clinical training for sport psychologists, increased emphasis on ethics and competence, increased specialization, some continuing tension between academic and applied sport psychologists, more qualitative research, and the need to take a global perspective.
After completing the Spencer Institute Sports Psychology Coach Certification training course, you can work at a gym, health club, fitness center or sports complex. Many NESTA Personal Fitness Trainers add this training to their educational profile. Many people decide to launch an online sports and fitness psychology and mindset business and work with clients all over the world. Others focus on development of youth athletes.
